У Вищій школі адвокатури відбулась фахова дискусія «The Power of the Written Word in Law: Legal Documents Under Review»

У фаховій дискусії на тему: «The Power of the Written Word in Law: Legal Documents Under Review» під час заходу з підвищення професійного рівня адвокатів, що відбувся у Вищій школі адвокатури НААУ взяли участь:

Ірина Шапошнікова – адвокат, член Центру правничої лінгвістики та Центру трудового права та соціального забезпечення ВША НААУ;
Салатин Ходжалиєва – адвокат АО “Юридичне Бюро Сергєєвих”, член Центру правничої лінгвістики ВША НААУ;
Надія Тарасова – адвокат, сертифікований корпоративний секретар, комплаєнс-офіцер, медіатор, членкиня Центру правничої лінгвістики ВША НААУ;
Людмила Колодник – юрист, керівник Центру правничої лінгвістики Вищої школи адвокатури НААУ, викладач спеціалізованого курсу «Юридична англійська» — «Legal English» з особисто розробленими програмами навчання — Contract Law, Company Law, Legal Writing;
Оксана Кіріяк – кандидат юридичних наук, доцент Чернівецький національний університет імені Юрія Федьковича.

Лектори докладно проаналізували разом з учасникамиthe Power of the Written Word in Law: Legal Documents Under Review, а саме:

1. The Employment contract

1.1. Трудовий договір та його основні відмінності від інших договорів.
1.2. Особливості укладення, зміни та розірвання трудових договорів Великобританії.

2. Legal Memorandum: tips for writing an effective document

2.1. Поняття “legal memo” в міжнародній юридичній практиці: меморандум чи службова записка?
2.2. Методи структурування та поради.

3. Non-disclosure agreement

3.1. Словник.
3.2. Угода про нерозголошення.
3.3. Перш ніж ділитися інформацією.
3.4. Що слід врахувати.
3.5. Типи угод про нерозголошення інформації.
3.6. Перед зустріччю.
3.7. Під час зустрічі.
3.8. Угоди про нерозголошення інформації в трудових договорах.

4. The First Line of Defense: Cease and Desist Letters Explained.

4.1. Вступ. Що таке Cease and Desist Letter? Мета та сфера застосування.
4.2. Юридична природа (Чи є цей документ судовим? Відмінність від позову чи офіційної скарги. Роль у досудовому врегулюванні спору).
4.3. Структура Cease and Desist Letter.
4.4. Практичні аспекти застосування (Типові помилки при складанні. Тон: агресивний vs. професійно-нейтральний. Використання як інструменту переговорів чи тиску).
4.5. Q&A та Висновки

5. Board Resolution

5.1. Вступ. Огляд правового документу – рішення правління. Ключові положення.
5.2. Основні помилки та ризики.
5.3. Типи Board Resolution.
5.4. Порівняльний аналіз.

У рамках характеристики юридичних документів акцентовано на наступному:

1. TheEmploymentcontract.

1.1. Трудовий договір та його основні відмінності від інших договорів

Distinction from other contracts:

Subject-matter;
Subordination;
Workplace integration;
Regular remuneration;
Social protection.

Importance of distinction:

Tax reasons;
Liability issues;
Health and Safety issues;
Statutory rights.

1.2. Особливості укладення, зміни та розірвання трудових договорів Великобританії

Formation of employment contract:

Sources of employment terms;
Job offer;
Written statement of particulars.

Sources of employment:

Employment contract: Oral or in writing.
Written terms of particulars: Summaryof the most importantterms of employment. Must be provided in writing on or before the first day of employment.
Other documents: Collective bargaining agreement Job description Internal rules Implied terms Custom.

Job offer:

Unconditional. Sarkerv South Tees Acute Hospitals NHS Trust (1997): Withdrawal of an accepted offer before the date on which the employment was due to start was a termination of employment in breach of contract, giving the claimant a cause of actionin an employment tribunal.
Conditional. Wishart v NACAB (1990): The company offered a job ‘’subject to receipt of satisfactory written references’’. The reference indicated that the claimant had a lot of sick days and the prospective employer decided to withdraw the offer. The claimant claimed that the reference would have been regarded as satisfactory by a reasonable employer, and that objective standard was the appropriate test to use. The court confirmed that the correct test is whether or not the references are seen as satisfactory by the employer in question; the test must be subjective.

Termination of Employment contract:

Mutual termination;
By notice;
Expiry o fixed-term employment contract;
Dismissal;
Constructive dismissal.

2.Legal Memorandum: tips for writing an effective document.

2.1. Поняття “legal memo” в міжнародній юридичній практиці: меморандум чи службова записка?

A memorandum in a legal sense can refer to a comprehensive and organized written document that summarizes and analyzes relevant laws based on legal research to support a conclusion on a particular legal issue.

A memorandum usually includes:

adescription of factual background of the subject case or fact pattern,
astatementof the legal issues to be discussed,
anintroduction of the relevant laws,
ananalysis of how the law should apply to specific facts and a conclusion.

There is no single version of a memorandum that will serve all situations.

Closed memo: is one in which you write a prognostic memo based on a set of research materials provided to you.
Open memo: is more challenging because you must write a predictive memo based on your ownresearch.

5 style rules for an effective memo:

1. Clearly and concisely state the facts in short, simple sentences.

2. Identify and define the legal issues in the case.

3. Research, select and read the cases and statutory authority relevant to the facts and legal issues. (For closed memos you simply use the research materials provided to you).

4. Apply the law to the facts.

5. Organize your analysis of the law and the facts using either the CRAC or IRAC method.

2.2. Методи структурування та поради

IRAC method:

1) developed in the United States in the 1970’s;

2) has now spread to many English-speaking countries.

How memorandum formats vary across jurisdictions:

United States: IRAC (Issue, Rule, Application, Conclusion). Extensive case law citations. Varies, typically 10-20 pages.
United Kingdom: Similar to U.S., with emphasis on precedent. Focus on persuasive legal writing. Varies, similar to U.S.
Germany: Numbered paragraphs, detailed statutory analysis. Less focus on precedent. Often longer than common law memos.
Japan: Formal structure, emphasis on concise language. Unique legal terminology. Generally shorter than U.S. or UK memos.
Singapore: Hybrid format, blending common law and civil law elements. Focus on clarity and accessibility. Length varies depending on complexity.

3.Non–disclosureagreement.

3.1.Словник:

Non-Disclosure Agreement – угода про нерозголошення, угода про конфіденційність.
Manufacturers – виробники.
To cover – охоплювати, покривати, накривати.
To share – ділитися, розповідати, передавати, висловлюватись.
To disclose the information –розкрити інформацію.
Agreement one way — договір «в одну сторону».
Non-patentable know-how –незапатентовані знання (вміння).
Recipient – отримувач, одержувач.
Labor contract = employment contract – трудовий договір (контракт).
Repercussions – наслідки, результати, відлуння.

3.2.Угода про нерозголошення

A Non-Disclosure Agreement (NDA), also known as a confidentiality agreement, is a legal contract between two or more parties that outlines how sensitive information shared between them will be kept confidential. NDAs are crucial for protecting trade secrets, business plans, customer lists, and other proprietary information during various business transactions and relationships.

3.3. Перш ніж ділитися інформацією

The best way to keep something confidential is not to disclose it in the first place. If you do need to share information you should use a non-disclosure agreement (NDA). This could happen when you speak to potential partners like:

investors;
manufacturers;
stockists.

You may have to tell people about your idea or your business to get advice. This could be from:

accountants;
banks;
financial advisors;
insurance brokers;
business coaches;
or a marketing agency.

It is important that you don’t assume conversations with advisors are automatically confidential. An NDA is a legal contract. It sets out how you share information or ideas in confidence. Sometimes people call NDAs confidentiality agreements.

3.4. Що слід врахувати

You should decide what your NDA covers. It could protect only information which is recorded in some form and marked ‘confidential’. It can also protect information you share in meetings or presentations.

You should be realistic. The person you are talking to might need to share your information with others. This could be their employees or professional advisors. They may also need to copy your information for this purpose. Make sure that these disclosures to employees and professional advisers are made in confidence.

Think about how long the confidentiality should last. It’s common to see it limited to 3 or 5 years. After that time they will be able to use and disclose your information. Once information is made public in anyway, an NDA can’t be enforced.

Some information could be kept confidential forever. Examples of these are:

non-patentable know-how;
lists of customers;
personal information about the individuals involved in a project.

Some companies or organisations could ask you to sign a document agreeing that they will not have a duty to keep your ideas or information confidential. If that is the case, you need to decide whether to risk disclosing your ideas to them.

3.5. Типи угод про нерозголошення інформації

NDAs can be one way, or mutual.

Use a one-way NDA if only you are disclosing information and a mutual NDA if both parties are.

If the NDA is one-way only, it may need to be executed as a deed to make it enforceable.

This is easy to do, so don’t make what should be a one-way agreement into an artificial mutual agreement.

If you and the other party to the NDA are not both in the same country, the NDA will need to state which law governs the agreement. Remember England and Wales have a different legal system to Scotland. It will also need to state in which courts it can be enforced. It is important that the courts of one country are not given exclusive jurisdiction. You may want to enforce the NDA in a different country if an unauthorised disclosure is made there.

3.6.Перед зустріччю

Don’t disclose your ideas or information until the recipient has signed and returned the NDA to you. Without an NDA, you are taking the risk that others could use your ideas or information without your permission.

Always check any NDA which another party asks you to sign. Make sure it doesn’t unfairly restrict your future activities.

You could ask your potential partner or advisor if they have an NDA you could both use. Read it carefully as it might serve their interests rather better than it serves yours. If in doubt, take professional advice.

Make sure the right person signs the NDA. This could be:

a director of the recipient company;
an officer of the recipient institution;
someone senior who has authority to give the undertakings in the NDA.

3.7.Під час зустрічі

You should record what you disclose at meetings or in presentations. Ask people present to sign a paper copy of a presentation, or a technical drawing to prove they have seen it.

Record what information you disclose in informal situations such as discussions or conversations. Note when and where that took place.

3.8. Угоди про нерозголошення інформації в трудових договорах

An employment contract typically contains a unilateral NDA, where the employee must agree to keep confidential certain information learnt in the course of their work.

The subject matter of such an NDA can be narrow or broad, depending on the company’s needs, but generally covers information about:

trade secrets,
patents,
customer lists,
company financial information.

If an employee breaches an employment non-disclosure agreement and shares confidential information with an unauthorised party, their employer is entitled to a remedy.

The type of remedy is usually specified in the agreement itself, such as:

injunctive relief,
damages for loss,
termination of employment,
court order.

Such NDAs do not have to be for a fixed time frame. To ensure enforceability, any time limit should not exceed what is reasonably necessary to protect the legitimate interests of the business.

4. The First Line of Defense: Cease and Desist Letters Explained.

4.1. Introduction: What is a Cease and Desist Letter? Purpose and Scope of Application

A Cease and Desist Letter is a formal written communication sent by one party (usually through a lawyer) demanding that another person or entity stop an allegedly unlawful activity and refrain from resuming it in the future.

It serves as the first step before legal action — a formal warning rather than immediate litigation.

Purpose:

To notify the recipient of the alleged infringement or misconduct;
To demand immediate cessation of the unlawful or offending behavior;
To serve as evidence that the sender attempted to resolve the dispute amicably before initiating legal proceedings.

Scope of Application:

Cease and Desist Letters are used widely in different legal contexts:

Intellectual Property Law – to stop copyright, trademark, or patent infringement;
Defamation – to prevent further publication of false or damaging statements;
Employment Law – in cases involving harassment or breaches of confidentiality obligations.

Key Vocabulary:

Cease and desist – to stop and refrain from continuing;
Infringement – violation of legal rights (e.g., IP rights);
Unlawful conduct – illegal actions or behavior;
Defamation – spreading false information that harms reputation.

4.2. Legal Nature

A Cease and Desist Letter is not a court document and has no direct legal force on its own.
It is a private, pre-litigation communication, typically written by a lawyer, expressing the sender’s legal position and demands.

Sending such a letter does not start a lawsuit — it merely warns that legal action may follow if the unlawful activity continues.

Difference from a Lawsuit or Official Complaint:

Nature: Informal, pre-litigation tool; Formal legal proceeding.

Submission: Sent directly to the opposing party; Filed in court or before an authority.

Aim: Stop the behavior and avoid litigation; Obtain a binding judgment or remedy.

Time/Cost: Quick and inexpensive; Lengthy and costly.

Legal Effect: No binding power; Legally enforceable decision.

A Cease and Desist Letter is thus a warning, while a lawsuit is a formal legal action.

Role in Pre-Litigation Dispute Resolution:

Opens communication between parties;
Demonstrates that the sender acted in good faith by attempting an amicable solution;
May lead to negotiation, mediation, or voluntary compliance;
If ignored, it may serve as evidence that the recipient was duly notified.

Many disputes — especially in intellectual property or defamation cases — are fully resolved at this stage, without court involvement.

4.3. Structure of a Cease and Desist Letter

A well-drafted Cease and Desist Letter is structured logically, usually containing 6–8 key components:

Letterhead and Contact Information:

Name/address of sender (lawyer or company) and recipient; date.
Purpose: Establishes credibility and authenticity.

Subject Line:

Short heading identifying the claim, e.g., “Re: Cease and Desist – Unauthorized Use of Trademark ‘LexPro’”.

Introduction / Statement of Purpose:

Identifies the parties and explains the purpose of the letter in a firm but professional tone.
Example: “We act on behalf of LexPro Legal Ltd. It has come to our attention that you have been using our registered trademark without authorization.”

Factual Background:

Presents facts giving rise to the complaint (dates, actions, examples).
Example: “On or about 12 September 2025, you launched a website using a domain name similar to our client’s trademark.”

Legal Basis:

Cites the specific law or contract provision that has been violated.
Example: “Your actions constitute an infringement under Section 10 of the Trade Marks Act 1994 (UK).”

Demands / Required Actions:

Clearly states what the recipient must do and within what time frame.
Example: “Immediately cease all unauthorized use of the mark and confirm compliance within seven days.”

Consequences of Non-Compliance:

Explains what legal actions will follow if the recipient fails to comply.
Example: “Our client reserves the right to initiate legal proceedings without further notice.”

Closing and Signature:

Professional conclusion leaving space for voluntary compliance or negotiation.
Example: “We trust that you will treat this matter with the seriousness it deserves. Yours sincerely, [Lawyer’s name].”

Common Style Mistakes in Legal English (from the presentation):

Overuse of passive voice – weakens clarity (use active voice instead).
Wordiness and repetition – legal writing values precision.
Politeness formula misuse – avoid “kindly demand”; use firm, direct phrasing.

4.4. Practical Aspects of Application

1. Common Drafting Mistakes:

Using overly aggressive or threatening tone — may escalate the dispute or harm credibility.
Lack of factual precision — vague claims weaken the sender’s case.
Missing deadlines or demands — unclear expectations may lead to inaction.
Incorrect legal references — undermines authority.
Overusing templates — uncustomized letters look unprofessional.

Best Practice: Tailor each letter to specific facts, verify legal grounds, maintain professional accuracy.

2. Tone: Aggressive vs. Professionally Neutral

Emotional, threatening language – Objective, factual, legally grounded.

May intimidate but provokes hostility – Builds credibility and allows negotiation.

Risks damaging reputation – Encourages cooperation.

Example Comparison:

Aggressive: “Your actions are outrageous and will result in immediate legal action!”
Professional: “Unless we receive confirmation of compliance within seven days, our client will consider appropriate legal remedies.”

Key takeaway: A neutral, firm, precise tone enhances credibility and supports later litigation.

3. The Letter as a Tool: Negotiation vs. Pressure

Negotiation Tool: Encourages voluntary compliance, invites discussion, and seeks amicable resolution. Example: “Our client is willing to discuss an amicable solution should you wish to resolve this matter without litigation.”
Pressure Mechanism: Signals seriousness, creates urgency, and protects rights through written record.

Best Practice: Combine firmness with diplomacy — assert rights without aggression.

4. The Power of BATNA (Best Alternative to a Negotiated Agreement):

Concept by R. Fisher & W. Ury in “Getting to Yes.”
BATNA helps identify what actions to take if no agreement is reached (e.g., mediation, arbitration, filing a lawsuit).
The clearer your BATNA, the stronger your position at the negotiation table.

Practical Tip: A Cease and Desist Letter is not only a legal document but also a communication strategy. The tone and wording determine whether the next step is cooperation or confrontation.

5. Board Resolution.

5.1. Introduction. Overview of the Legal Document — the Board Resolution. Key Provisions

A Board Resolution is a formal written record of a decision adopted by a company’s board of directors, either during a duly convened meeting or by unanimous written consent. It serves as legal evidence of the board’s authority and intent, giving effect to corporate actions such as approving contracts, appointing executives, or authorizing financial transactions.

By function, a board resolution is legal, but in tone and form it is administrative, reflecting corporate governance formality rather than courtroom procedure. Typical language formulas used in such documents include expressions like “It is hereby resolved that the Company shall…” or “The Board, having duly considered, approves the following…”

These phrases reflect the nature of corporate language rooted in the common law tradition, where specific expressions have survived as linguistic fossils. For example, hereby signals the immediacy of legal effect, thereof prevents ambiguity by linking phrases clearly, and whereas introduces factual background or a preamble to the decision.

The term “board” in this context symbolizes collegial governance — decisions made collectively “around the board,” reflecting transparency and shared deliberation. The word “resolution” refers to a concise and authoritative statement of a decision, derived historically from the Latin minuta scriptura meaning “small writing,” which later gave rise to the English word minutes, referring to the summarized written record of a meeting.

A Board Resolution also functions as an official part of corporate recordkeeping, typically drafted, certified, and maintained by the corporate secretary. It confirms that the decision was properly discussed, voted upon, and approved according to the company’s bylaws or legal requirements.

The practical importance of board resolutions through a recent case. In early 2025, a corporate governance dispute arose at City Developments Limited (CDL), a major property conglomerate in Singapore. The chairman, Kwek Leng Beng, accused his son and CEO, Sherman Kwek, of executing a “boardroom coup” by appointing two independent directors without full board approval, despite a written resolution. Sherman maintained that the appointments were validly passed by a board majority and aimed at strengthening governance. He subsequently introduced new resolutions to limit the influence of an adviser and restructure the board. The dispute led to legal proceedings and a temporary trading suspension of CDL shares, highlighting how the content and process of adopting board resolutions can have significant legal and financial implications.

5.2. Common Mistakes and Risks

A lack of quorum or improper notice of the meeting can render a resolution invalid. Inaccurate or careless wording can also lead to ambiguity or difficulties in enforcement, especially if the resolution is challenged in court or by shareholders.

Conflicts of interest among board members represent another major risk, as they can amount to breaches of fiduciary duty, undermining both the validity and ethical legitimacy of the decision.

To ensure clarity and enforceability, the presentation recommends using the traditional legal formula of resolution drafting. An example given is:

“Resolved that the Board of Directors of [Company Name], having duly convened and established a quorum, hereby approves and authorizes [specific action, e.g., the execution of the Share Purchase Agreement dated [date] with [counterparty]] on the terms presented, and further authorizes [name, title] to take all necessary steps and execute all documents required to give full effect to this resolution.”

This formula ensures the document clearly states the authority, the action approved, and the person authorized to implement it, avoiding ambiguity and ensuring compliance with corporate procedure.

Two key actors are always involved in the adoption of a Board Resolution:

The Board of Directors — the collective decision-making body that deliberates, votes, and adopts the resolution.
The Corporate Secretary (or meeting secretary) — the officer responsible for recording, certifying, and maintaining the resolution as part of the company’s official records.

Neglecting the secretary’s role or procedural requirements can create documentary gaps that may later invalidate the corporate act.

5.3. Types of Board Resolutions

According to the presentation, Board Resolutions may cover a wide range of company matters. The main types include:

Appointment or removal of executives — for instance, appointing a CEO, CFO, or other senior officers.
Approval of significant transactions — such as acquisitions, contracts, or financing deals.
Dividend distribution — deciding on payment of dividends to shareholders.
Adoption of internal policies — including corporate governance rules or compliance programs.
Opening or closing bank accounts and granting powers of attorney.

In addition, formal details must always be included: the title of the resolution, its date and place, reference to quorum, a list of directors present, the agenda, and the precise wording of the decision.

A distinction is also made between a unanimous written consent and a formal meeting resolution. The former occurs when all directors sign a written document approving the decision without holding a meeting; the latter is adopted during an official board meeting after discussion and voting.

Some board resolutions may also include signatures (usually of the chairperson, secretary, or all directors) and, in certain jurisdictions, the use of a corporate seal, which may be mandatory or optional depending on the company’s statutes or local law.

5.4. Comparative Analysis

Comparison between a Board Resolution and a Shareholders’ Resolution. Both are formal decisions, but they differ in subject matter, authority, and procedural requirements.

A Board Resolution is a decision adopted by the company’s board of directors, typically addressing issues related to management, operations, and the execution of corporate powers. It represents the board’s administrative authority to manage the company’s day-to-day and strategic activities.

In contrast, a Shareholders’ Resolution is a decision adopted by the company’s shareholders in a general meeting. It usually concerns more fundamental matters, such as the company’s ownership, governance structure, or major corporate changes. Examples include amendments to the charter, mergers, or liquidation.

In essence, the Board Resolution reflects the operational will of the company’s managers, while the Shareholders’ Resolution expresses the ownership will of its investors. Both carry legal weight, but they act within distinct spheres of corporate authority.

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